Question 2 Essay Example

Question 2 Essay Example Question 2 Essay Question 2 Essay Somewhere in the range of 1803 and 1853, the region of the United States dramatically multiplied. As the country extended westbound, the various pieces of the nation became separated. The individuals of the North, the South and the West totally created various lifestyles as a result of the various atmospheres, sorts of land and characteristic assets in the three segments. Each segment had its own issues and individuals needed the national government to pass just such laws as would support their segment. This mentality is known as sectionalism and it would make incredible mischief the solidarity of the country.In the past, individuals of the various territories had cooperated on the grounds that they all needed very similar things. Along these lines, the ages of Americans from the 1770s to the 1840s accomplished incredible triumphs in regional development. Be that as it may, from 1820 to 1860, national solidarity decreased as sectional premiums started things out and individuals conte nded among themselves about levies, cash, the structure of streets and railways and were isolated over subjugation (Kurth, 1996).The social, monetary and political conditions between the segments had veered by 1850. In the North, manufacturing plants were being assembled and were delivering a wide assortment of articles. There was a development of the migrant populace toward the West where fruitful homesteads were made out of the wild and sections of land of wheat and harvest were developed. In the South, cotton was top dog. The cotton economy of the South depended on the work of the Negro slaves. As the cotton was processed, it was typically sent by boat to the material production lines in the North or to Europe. As the country extended in populace and size, better transportation offices were required. The most significant were the railroad, the steamer and less significantly, the channels. The vast majority of them went from east to west, permitting the rural results of the West t o be sent east and the fabricated results of the East to be went west. Somewhat, this shut off the South from the remainder of the nation (Morris, 1965).As an ever increasing number of pioneers moved west, an ever increasing number of segments of land were sorted out as domains. The Southerners needed to have subjection in probably a portion of the new regions on the grounds that new farmland was need and since the ranch framework depended on servitude, they looked for this new land where subjugation was allowed. Additionally, the Southerners needed to keep the level of influence in the Senate.In 1819 when Missouri, a region permitting bondage applied for affirmation as an express, the harmony among slave and free states was compromised. On the off chance that Missouri was acknowledged, there will at that point be without eleven states and twelve slave states. The North suggested that for Missouri to be acknowledged, the accompanying conditions ought to apply that no extra slaves ar e to enter Missouri and the offspring of the slaves who are as of now there are to be liberated at 25 years old. The Southerners detest the interruption and this was not passed in the Senate. Rather, the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was passed with the affirmation of Maine as a free state, Missouri as a slave state and subjection is banned from the Louisiana region north of scope 36o 30’ (â€Å"An Outline of American History†, 1994).When California and New Mexico were held onto not long after war with Mexico was announced in mid-nineteenth century, the issue of bondage indeed turned into an issue. In January 1850, Henry Clay proposed a trade off to take care of the issue of subjugation in the domains on five points:1.â â â â â â â â â â â â that California be conceded as a free state as it had requested;2.â â â â â â â â â â â â that regional governments be set up in New Mexico and Utah;3.â â â â â â â â â â â â that another and st ricter criminal slave law be passed to accommodate returning runaway captives to their owners;4.â â â â â â â â â â â â that the slave exchange District of Columbia be altogether stopped;5.â â â â â â â â â â â â that the limit among Texas and New Mexico be settled and that the U.S. government will pay any obligations that Texas had.After much discussion and inescapable disappointment by the radicals in the North and South, it went as law and got known as the Compromise of 1850 (Smith, 1906).A decade later, a trade off can never again be reached and because of sectional contrasts, servitude issue and issues against regional administration of the country’s extension, a few Southern states withdrew from the Union making way for the Civil War.Referencesâ€Å"Extension of Slavery, Chapter 5.† (1994). A layout of American history. Recovered October 5, 2007, from http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/H/1994/ch8_p1.htm.

How to Struggle with Writing Papers

Step by step instructions to Struggle with Writing Papers Step by step instructions to Struggle with Writing Papers For certain understudies composing a paper is a calamity. Some of them discover it tedious and dreary, in this way they before long become exhausted. Others would prefer to manage some other sort of task. Various understudies think they dont have enough abilities to adapt to paper composing. Be that as it may, for all intents and purposes any movement that is new can end up being troublesome without appropriate planning. Individuals figure out how to ride a bike, cook, or do yoga. Composing great papers is likewise an aptitude each understudy can figure out how to create. Things being what they are, the reason not start at this moment? Initially, numerous individuals discover composing an exhausting movement. Obviously, on the off chance that you sit at your work area with no thoughts on how and what to compose, youll end up investing more energy at that point required on your paper, and it will likely be of low quality. You will be exhausted, and you will get a less than stellar score. Then again, on the off chance that you have an arrangement, you will realize what precisely you ought to do, and youll have no opportunity to get exhausted. Decide your needs, break your undertakings into a few littler sub-assignments and set up cutoff times. Thusly, you will realize that on the off chance that you put something off till tomorrow, you should accomplish more the following day to adhere to your calendar. This may persuade you to remain centered. Another issue numerous understudies face is an absence of thoughts. All things considered, you dont must be very imaginative to compose a paper. Simply consider potential subjects for your paper every once in a while. For instance, think about potential outcomes over in your psyche while you are on the metro or strolling to the store. Take your scratch pad with you and record thoughts that fly into your head. Take a piece of paper, plunk down, and compose all that you can consider concerning your theme, even the craziest thoughts. At the point when you are done, you can choose the ones that will work for your paper. Conceptualizing encourages you discover an answer you didnt hope to consider prior. On the off chance that these techniques do help and you believe you are stuck, you can generally counsel somebody increasingly experienced. That individual may be your educator or a companion who has just composed a paper on a related point. You could simply google the point. Maybe somebody has just investigated or explored a theme that premiums you. You can utilize their thoughts as a springboard to think of your own musings. At last, dont be hesitant to commit an error while dealing with your paper. Remember that careful discipline brings about promising results. You will build up a draft of your paper to edit and alter a few times. Once youve got done with composing, however, enjoy a reprieve to clear your head. Peruse your paper the following day with a new psyche. That will assist you with perceiving it in an alternate manner. All the parts that should be revised and all the slip-ups and errors will be evident to you. It might require some investment, however this is a solid strategy that works for some understudies. You may as of now be acquainted with a portion of the tips depicted above, or you have your own techniques for how to compose a paper; in any case, these tips consolidated will most likely assist you with making composing a paper a progressively agreeable encounter. Our online custom paper composing administration is intended to assist understudies with composing distinctive scholarly papers get in touch with us now!

Diversity Essay Sample

Diversity Essay SampleDiversity essay samples can be a great resource for anyone planning to write a diversity essay. Many students find that writing their own diversity essay is very stressful and they often forget key points. Here are some tips on what to consider in writing your own diversity essay.Diversity has become a very important subject today. With diversity comes major diversity of cultures, people, backgrounds, and experiences. When writing about diversity, you have to keep it in perspective. You want to keep your diversity essay as short as possible.Write your letter before you begin reading the essay. The more time you spend preparing your letter the better chance you have of writing an essay that is well-written and polished. You want to make sure that your letter tells the applicant that you care about him or her enough to give your information.Write in a writing style that is personal. Make sure that your tone is sincere and that you are confident enough to convey yo ur feelings about them. You do not want to seem cold or unfriendly with an applicant. You want to portray yourself as being friendly and considerate.Make sure that your essay doesn't contain any spelling or grammatical errors, as that will take away from the overall impression you want to make. If you're in high school, you probably learned the importance of writing grammar and proofreading your work. You should still keep this in mind when writing a diversity essay. You want to avoid having grammar mistakes on your personal diversity letter as it will reflect poorly on you.Be sure that your essay is professional. If you want to get a job at a big company that makes millions of dollars per year then you need to write professionally. The best way to go about this is to get samples that are well-written and a good way to do this is by checking out diversity essay samples on the internet.There are plenty of diversity essay samples out there that you can use as a guideline to write your own diversity essay. You can get free samples online as well as more expensive ones if you want to spend a little bit of money. Make sure that you make yourself familiar with all of the different types of diversity essay samples out there before you choose one.Diversity has become a very important topic that many people are getting involved in. As a student you want to create a personal statement about yourself that says so much about who you are and why you want to go to college. Writing a diversity essay sample is an easy way to show that you are a good writer.

Analyse the Causes of Poverty in the World and Evaluate...

Analyse the Causes of Poverty in the World and Evaluate Attempts to Address it on a Global Scale Poverty is the state of being extremely poor and being inferior in quality. Nearly half of the world’s population, nearly 3 billion people, live on less than two dollars a day and the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the poorest 48 nations is less than the wealth of the world’s three richest people combined. Poverty can be caused by many issues particularly social and economic reasons. There have been many attempts to address poverty on a global scale and these will be explored. Firstly, a country’s poverty level is affected by overpopulation and can depend on the population density and its agricultural ability. For example, in†¦show more content†¦It is difficult for governments to afford good public school particularly in the rural areas. For example in sub-Saharan African about 60% of children attend elementary school, whereas in developed countries virtually all children have access to education. Without having a basic education it is difficult to find income generating jobs that are unskilled so creating poverty. Additionally, many people in developing countries do not attend school at all as they have to concentrate on making a minimal living. Also, even if they have an education, the possibility they will find a suitable employment is unlikely and so many people do not see the reason to go to school. Therefore, with little encouragement being given by the government or other organisations, people are not seeking to get an education the refore holding on to poorly paid jobs causing poverty in the world. One economic cause of poverty is the global distribution of resources. It is unequally distributed in developing countries and these countries have problems of poverty that is persistent. In recent years, most countries have attempted to develop their economies using industry and technology with varying success. Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand have now become fairly wealthy with good economies and now with lower levels of poverty. But ,as previously said, other developing countries lack the essential raw materials and knowledge and skills gained through formal education and training. They also lackShow MoreRelatedTaking a Look at International Migration3341 Words   |  13 Pagesthe possibility for a person to improve their quality of life, in some cases an individual does not always get a choice in migrating (Drabo and Mbaye, 2011: 2). Environmental change has always been linked to global migration flows and can result in large population movement across the world (International Organization for Migration, 2008). 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Sodium, potassium and urea measurement - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 14 Words: 4204 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Introduction Electrolytes are solutions that conduct electricity. Any molecule that becomes an ion when mixed with water is an electrolyte. Salts such as sodium, potassium, calcium and chloride are examples of electrolytes. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Sodium, potassium and urea measurement" essay for you Create order When these molecules dissolve in water, they release ions with an electric charge, positive or negative, that attracts or repels other ions during a chemical reaction. In living cells, most chemical reaction occur in an aqueous environment since approximately 75% of the mass of the living cell is water. Normally 70kg man, represent with 42 litres of total body water that contribute for about 60% of the total body weight. (Marshall, 2000). 66% of this water is in the intracellular fluid (ICF) and 33% in the extracellular fluid (ECF). The principle univalent cations in the ECF and ICF are sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) respectively. Sodium (Na+) Sodium is the major cation of the extracellular fluid (ECF). It represents almost one-half the osmatic strength of plasma. It plays an important role in maintaining the normal distribution of water and osmatic pressure in the ECF compartment. Sodium levels in the body are regulated ultimately by the kidneys (it excrete excess sodium). The main source of sodium is sodium chloride (NaCl- table salt) which is used in cooking. The daily requirement of the body is about 1 2 mmol/day. Sodium is filtered freely by the glomeruli. About 70 80 % of the filtered sodium load is reabsorbed actively in the proximal tubules (with chloride and water passively) and anther 20 25 % is reabsorbed in the loop of Henle (along with chloride and more water). Normal ECF sodium concentration is 135 145 mmol/L while that of the intracellular fluid (ICF) is only 4-10 mmol/L. sodium is lost via urine, sweat or stool. (Marshall, 2000). Hypernatraemia Hypernatraemia (high sodium levels in the blood) may occurs due to increase sodium intake, decrease excretion, dehydration (water loss) or failure to replace normal water losses. It can also occurs because of excessive mineral corticoid (such as Aldosterone) production acting on renal reabsorption. The clinical features of hypernatraemia are non-specific or masked by underlying conditions. Nausea, vomiting, fever and confusion may occur. A history of long standing polyuria, polydipsia, and theist indicates diabetes insipidus. Hypernatraemia is caused by many diseases such as renal failure, Cushings syndrome or Conns syndrome. Conns syndrome is a disease of the adrenal glands involving excess production of a hormone, called aldosterone. Another name for the condition is primary hyperaldosteronism. Hyponatraemia Hyponatraemia (low sodium levels in the blood) is caused by impaired renal reabsorption of sodium. This occurs in Addisons disease of the adrenal gland due to loss of aldosterone producing zona glomerulosa cortical cells. Sodium decreases in severe sweating in a hot climate or during physical exertion such as marathon running. Falsely low serum sodium concentration may be found in hyperlipidaemic states where the sodium concentration in the aqueous phase of the serum is actually normal, but the lipid contributes to the total volume of serum measured. The symptoms are non-specific and include headache, confusion and restlessness. Hyponatraemia is seen in Addisons disease and/or excessive diuretic therapy. (Kumar Clark, 2002) Potassium (K+) It is the major intracellular cation. It is average concentration in tissue cells is 150mmol/L and in RBCs is 105 mmol/L. The body requirement for K+ is satisfied by a dietary intake. K+ is absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract and distributed rapidly, with a small amount taken up by cells and most excreted by the kidneys. Potassium which filtered by the glomeruli is reabsorbed almost completely in the proximal tubules (PT) and then secreted in the distal tubules (DT) in exchange for sodium under the influence of aldosterone. Factors that regulate distal tubular secretion of potassium include intake of sodium and potassium, water flow rate in distal tubules, plasma level of mineralocorticoids, and acid-base balance. Renal tubular acidosis, as well as metabolic and respiratory acidosis and alkalosis also affect renal regulation of potassium excretion. (Kumar Clark, 2002). Hyperkalaemia Hyperkalaemia is high K+ levels in the blood. Potassium is in high concentration within cells than in extracellular fluids. This means that relatively small changes in plasma concentration can underestimate possibly larger changes in intracellular concentrations. In addition, extensive tissue necrosis can liberate large amounts of potassium into the plasma causing the concentration to reach dangerously high levels. The commonest cause of hyperkalaemia is kidney failure causing decreased urinary potassium excretion. Severe hyperkalaemia (6.5 mmol/l) is a serious medical emergency needs treatment as fast as possible because of the risk of developing cardiac arrest. Moderate hyperkalaemia is relatively asymptomatic emphasising the importance of regular biochemical monitoring to avoid sudden fatal complications Hypokalaemia Hypokalaemia (low potassium levels in the blood) has many causes; the most common are diuretic treatment (particularly thiazides), hyperaldosteronism and renal disease. Hypokalaemia is often associated with a metabolic alkalosis due to hydrogen ion shift into the intracellular compartment. Clinically, it presents with paralysis, muscular weakness and cardiac dysrhythmais. (Kumar Clark, 2002) Aldosterone Aldosterone is a steroidal hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex. It is the hormone that regulates the bodys electrolyte balance. This hormone synthesized exclusively in the zona glomerulosa region of the adrenal cortex. This zona contains 18-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzyme which a requisite enzyme for the formation of Aldosterone. Aldosterone acts directly on the kidney tubules to decrease the secretion rate of sodium ion (with accompanying retention of water), and to increase the excretion rate of potassium ion. The secretion of aldosterone is regulated by two mechanisms. First, the concentration of sodium ions secreted may be a factor since increased rates of aldosterone secretion are found when dietary sodium is severely limited. Second, reduced blood flow to the kidney stimulates certain kidney cells to secrete the proteolytic enzyme renin, which converts the inactive angiotensinogen globulin in the blood into angiotensin 1. Another enzyme then converts angiotensin I into a ngiotensin II, its active form. This peptide, in turn, stimulates the secretion of aldosterone by the adrenal cortex. Pathologically elevated aldosterone secretion with concomitant excessive retention of salt and water often results in edema. (Kumar Clark, 2002) Urea is a by-product of protein metabolism that is formed in the liver is formed by the enzymatic deamination of amino acids (urea cycle). The immediate precursor of urea is arginine, which is hydrolyzed to give urea and Ornithine. The urea is excreted by the kidneys and Ornithine in the liver combine with ammonia, formed by the catabolism of amino acids, to regenerate arginine and thereby continue the process of urea formation. The blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test measures the level of urea nitrogen in a sample of the patients blood. In healthy people, most urea nitrogen is filtered out by the kidneys and leaves the body in the urine, because urea contains ammonia, which is toxic to the body. If the patients kidneys are not functioning properly or if the body is using large amounts of protein, the BUN level will rise. If the patient has severe liver disease, the BUN will drop. High levels of BUN may indicate kidney disease or failure; blockage of the urinary tract by a kidney stone or tumour; a heart attack or congestive heart failure; dehydration; fever; shock; or bleeding in the digestive tract. High BUN levels can sometimes occur during late pregnancy or result from eating large amounts of protein-rich foods. A BUN level higher than 100 mg/dl, points to severe kidney damage. (Kumar Clark, 2002) Materials and method Please refer to medical biochemistry practical book (BMS2). Result The equation obtained from the graph used to calculate the Urea concentration of patients is: Y = 0.0238 X Where Y = absorbance X = urea concentration Patient 1 = 0.231/0.0238 = 9.7 mmol/L Patient 2 = 0.149/0.0238 = 6.3 mmol/L Patient 3 = 0.188/0.0238 = 7.89 x 10 = 78.9 mmol/L Patient 4 = 0.376/0.0238 = 7.5 mmol/L Discussion The concentration of sodium and potassium for the four patients was measured by using the flame photometer. For the estimation of urea concentration, a standard calibration curve using different standard concentrations been plotted which used to determine the test samples concentrations. In this practical, the abnormal conditions are varying for each of the patients. Addisons disease is a disorder of the adrenal cortex in which the adrenal glands are under active, resulting in a deficiency of adrenal hormones. Addisons disease can start at any age and affects males and females equally. The adrenal glands are affected by an autoimmune reaction in which the bodys immune system attacks and destroys the adrenal cortex. The glands may also be destroyed by cancer, an infection such as tuberculosis, or another identifiable disease. In infants and children, Addisons disease may be due to a genetic abnormality of the adrenal glands. The majority of the clinical features of adrenal failure are due to lack of glucocorticoid and mineralcorticoid. In Addisons disease cortisol levels are reduced which lead, through feedback, to increase corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) and adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) production. When the adrenal glands become under active, they tend to produce inadequate amounts of all adrenal hormones. Thus, Addisons disease aff ects the balance of water, sodium, and potassium in the body, as well as the bodys ability to control blood pressure and react to stress. In addition, loss of androgens, such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), may cause a loss of the body hair in women. A deficiency of aldosterone in particular causes the body to excrete large amount of sodium and potassium, leading to low levels of sodium and high levels of potassium in the blood. The kidneys are not able to concentrate urine, so when a person with Addisons disease drinks too much water or loses too much sodium, the level of sodium in the blood falls. Inability to concentrate urine ultimately causes the person to urinate excessively and become dehydrated. Severe dehydration and low sodium level reduce blood volume and can culminate in shock. Dehydration also causes a high blood urea level. In Addisons disease, the pituitary gland produces more corticotrophin in an attempt to stimulate the adrenal glands. Corticotrophin also stimulat es melanin production, so dark pigmentation of the skin and the lining of the mouth often develop. People with Addisons disease are not able to produce additional corticosteroids when they are stressed. Therefore, they are susceptible to serious symptoms and complications when confronted with illness, extreme fatigue, severe injury, surgery, or possibly severe psychological stress. Secondary adrenal insufficiency is a term given to a disorder that resembles Addisons disease. In this disorder, the adrenal glands are under active because the pituitary gland is not stimulating them, not because the adrenal glands have been destroyed. Blood tests may show low sodium level and high potassium level and usually indicate that the kidneys are not working well. The cortisol level may be low and corticotrophin level may be high. However, the diagnosis is usually confirmed by measuring cortisol level after they have been stimulated with corticotrophin. If cortisol level is low, further tests are needed to determine if problem is Addisons or secondary adrenal insufficiency. Patient-1 has very low sodium 116 mmol/L (135-145 mmol/L), high potassium 6.2 mmol/L (3.6-5.0 mmol/L) and high urea 9.7 mmol/L (3.3-7.5 mmol/L). These abnormal results mostly fit Addisons disease. Sodium been lost in urine in exchange with potassium which causes depletion of Na+ in the blood and increase K+ as both cortisol and aldesterone hormones are absent. Urea level is elevated as a secondary to dehydration and could be due to renal perfusion. ACTH measurement can be used to confirm the diagnosis. Conns syndrome is known as primary aldostronism, is due to the hyper secretion of aldesterone, usually by adenoma of the adrenal cortex or loss often nodular hyperplasia. It characterised by sodium retention and potassium depletion, because plasma renin feed back mechanism is depressed. Under normal conditions aldesterone is regulated by the renin angiotensim mechanism. The principle physiological function of aldesterone is to conserve Na+ . It dose this mainly by facilitating the reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of K+ and H+ in the distal renal tubule. Aldesterone also plays a major role in regulating water and electrolytes balance and blood pressure. The renin-angiotension aldesterone system is the most important controlling mechanism, but ACTH, Na+ and K+ also affect aldesterone secretion. The release of the enzyme renin is stimulated by fall in circulating blood volume or renal perfusion pressure and loss of Na+. The enzyme stimulate the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus which c auses the release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from posterior pituitary gland. ADH targets the kidneys to increase the water reabsorption and causes arterioles to constrict. Renin also acts on its substrate and splits off the inactive decapeptide angiotensim I. Then angiotenism-converting enzyme (ACE), present in lung and plasma, converts angiotensim I to the active angiotensim II which stimulates the release of aldesterone by the adrenal cortex. Aldosterone increases the retention of sodium, chloride ions and water by the kidneys. The laboratory findings include low serum potassium which is a consequence of increased renal potassium excretion, normal or slightly increased sodium in plasma due to increased reabsorption from the renal tubules. Also the renin level will be low and do not rise in response to sodium depletion as they would be in normal persons. In addition, prolonged potassium depletion and hypertension are signs of renal damage. The clinical significance of Coons disease represented with hypertension, muscular weakness and anther neurological manifestation due to loss of K+ which play role in muscles and neurons contraction. Polyuria and thirst secondary to poor renal concentration. Any patient represent hypertension with low potassium concentration should be suspected to have Coons disease. Any patient under diuretic treatment should be monitored overnight as this manifest low potassium. Patient-2 has normal urea level 6.3 mmol/L (3.3-7.5 mmol/L), sodium result is 144 mmol/L, just below the upper limit (135-145 mmol/L) and very low potassium which supports the diagnosis of Coons syndrome. The high aldosterone level in the blood acts on the kidneys to increase the loss of mineral potassium in the urine and facilitate the reabsorption of Na+. Renal failure is the inability of the kidneys to adequately filter metabolic waste products from the blood. Chronic kidney failure is a gradual decline in kidney function which may be explained in terms of a full solute load fall in on a reduced number of functionally normal nephrons. The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is invariably reduced, associated with retention of urea, creatinine, urate and other organic substances. The kidneys are less able to control the amount and distribution of body water (fluid balance) and the levels of electrolytes (sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphate) in the blood and blood pressure often rise. The kidneys lose their ability to produce sufficient amounts of a hormone (erythropoietin) that stimulates the formation of new red blood cells, resulting in a low red blood cell count (anemia). In children, kidney failure affects the growth of bones. In both children and adults, kidney failure can lead to weaker, abnormal bones. The increased solute load per nephrons impairs the kidneys ability to reduce concentrated urine. As the GFR falls to lower levels retention of Na+ occurs but there is no consistent pattern alteration in plasma Na+ in these cases and in many the results remain normal. Potassium clearance may be increased and raised plasma K+ is uncommon in spite of the tendency for K+ to come out of cells due to the metabolic acidosis that is usually present. However, patients with renal failure are unable to excrete large loads of K+. The level of urea and creatinine will also rise as a result of decreased excretion by the kidneys. Patient-3 has a normal sodium levels 137 mmol/L with a high potassium .8.7 mmol/L and very high urea (78.9 mmol/l) levels which indicates abnormal kidney function. The patient is most probably suffering from chronic renal failure. The numbers of healthy functioning normal nephrons are reduced therefore; there will be a reduction in the execration of urea which will accumulates in the blood. Because of the low GRF, potassium blood levels are increased. The patient must undergo renal dialysis. Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a common acute complication of insulin-dependent, or type 1 diabetes mellitus (IDDM) due to insulin deficiency which is accompanied by raised plasma concentration of diabetogenic hormones (Adrenaline, Cortisol, Growth hormone and Glucagon ).Before the discovery of insulin in the 1920s, patients rarely survived diabetic ketoacidosis. This complication is still potentially lethal, with an average mortality rate between 5 and 10%. Although the risk of diabetic ketoacidosis is greatest for patients with IDDM, the condition may also occur in patients with non- insulin-dependent diabetes (NIDDM) under stressful conditions, such as during a myocardial infarction. Common symptoms are thirst due to dehydration, polyuria, nausea and weakness that have progressed over several days, which result in coma over the course of several hours. Because of the variable symptoms, diabetic ketoacidosis should be considered in any ill diabetic patient, particularly if the patient presents with nausea and vomiting. Common clinical findings include tachycardia, tachypnea, dehydration, altered mental status and a fruity breath odour, indicating the presence of ketones. Plasma glucose is normally maintained between 4.5 and 8.0mmol/1. Without insulin, most cells cannot use the sugar that is in the blood. Cells still need energy to survive, and they switch to a back-up mechanism to obtain energy. Fat cells begin to break down, producing compounds called ketones. Ketones provide some energy to cells but also make the blood too acidic (ketoacidosis). Since plasma glucose diabetic ketoacidosis exceed the renal threshold; glucose is always present in the urine of patients (glycosuria) with ketoacidosis, the pH of the blood is important in determining the severity of the condition. Blood normally has a pH of 7.35-7.45, maintained by the buffering systems, the most important of which is the bicarbonate buffer system. When acids accumulate in the blood, they dissociate with an increase in hydrogen ion concentration. Bicarbonate can usually neutralise hydrogen ions by incorporating them into water. DKA is associated with electrolyte imbalances; sodium and potassium levels in particular are affected. Serum sodium levels may be low, high or normal. When evaluating the serum sodium level, it is helpful to remember that hyperglycemia causes a shift of free water into the extracellular space, diluting the measured sodium concentration which results in lost of sodium via lie urine as a result of osmotic diuresis. In addition, vomiting, a common feature of ketoacidosis is associated with a loss of sodium from the gastrointestinal tract. This might not always be reflected in the blood results because it is a measure of concentration and, as has already been illustrated, dehydration will be present. Normal plasma sodium levels are maintained between 135 and 145mmol/l, however, despite the actual deficit, patients with DKA might display wide-ranging plasma sodium levels depending on the relative losses of water and sodium. Total body potassium is always depleted in ketoacidosis as potassium is also lost in urine and vomit. The plasma concentration of potassium, however, remains relatively high due to the passage of potassium out of the cells and into the extracellular fluid. One of the mechanisms that normally control the passage of potassium into and out of cells is the sodium/potassium pump. This pump requires intracellular glucose, which is not available in ketoacidosis, consequently, the pump cannot function and potassium leaks out of the cell and into the plasma. Furthermore, potassium is freely exchangeable with hydrogen across the cell membrane. If the hydrogen concentration is high as in DKA, hydrogen will move into the cell in exchange for potassium. So, despite an overall potassium deficit, plasma levels are usually raised in ketoacidosis, at the expense of the body cells. The kidneys can malfunction, resulting in kidney failure that may require dialysis or kidney transplantation. Doctors usu ally check the urine of people with diabetes for abnormally high levels of protein (albumin), which is an early sign of kidney damage. At the earliest sign of kidney complications, the person is often given angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, drugs that slow the progression of kidney disease by decreasing blood flow to the kidneys which prevent the kidneys from excreting normal amounts of potassium leads to mild hyperkalaemia. The result obtained for patient-4 corresponding with the clinical findings found in diabetic ketoacidosis. The sodium is reduced (130 mmol/L) and the potassium reading is relatively high (5.8 mmol/L) when compared with the normal reference range. There is a marked increase in urea (15.6 mmol/L) because as mentioned earlier the kidneys can malfunction, resulting in kidney failure that will concentrate fluid in the extracellular compartment. Conclusion Patient 1 is suffering from Addisons disease Patient 2 is suffering from Coons syndrome Patient 3 is suffering from chronic renal failure Patient 4 is suffering from diabetic ketoacidos Questions Calculate the osmolarity (mmol/L) for each patient. Why would patients3s (the diabetic) osmolarity be underestimate? Osmolarity is a property of particles of solute per liter of solution. If a substance can dissociate in solution, it may contribute more than one equivalent to the osmolarity of the solution. The expected osmolarity of plasma can be calculated according to the following formula. Calculated osmolarity (mOsm/kg) = 2*[Na +] + 2*[K+] + (glucose) + (urea) Patient 1 = 2 x 116 + 2 x 6.2 + [glucose] + 9.7 Patient 2 = 2 x 144 + 2 x 2.8 + [glucose] + 6.3 Patient 3 = 2 x 137 + 2 x 8.7 + [glucose] + 78.9 Patient 4 = 2 x 130 + 2 x 5.8 + [glucose] + 15.7 The final result is not obtained as the glucose values are not given, so the calculation can not be done without glucose values. The patient 3 (the diabetic) osmolarity is underestimated because of insulin deficiency, the cells uptake of glucose, which causes hyperglycaemia. What is the abnormality in the clinical condition Diabetes Insipidus, and how does it affect water electrolyte balance? Many different hormones help to control metabolic activities within the body. One of these is called anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) and its function is to help control the balance of water in the body. It does this by regulating the production of urine. ADH is produced by the hypothalamus and then stored in the pituitary gland until it is needed. Diabetes Insipidus usually results from the decreased production of antidiuretic hormone. Alternatively, the disorder may be caused by failure of the pituitary gland to release Antidiuretic hormone into the bloodstream. Other causes of diabetes Insipidus include damage done during surgery on the hypothalamus or pituitary gland; a brain injury, particularly a fracture of the base of the skull; a tumor; sarcoidosis or tuberculosis; an aneurysm (a bulge in the wall of an artery) or blockage in the arteries leading to the brain; some forms of encephalitis or meningitis; and the rare disease Langerhans cell granulomatosis (histiocytosis X). Another type of diabetes Insipidus, nephrogenic diabetes Insipidus, may be caused by abnormalities in the kidneys. Diabetes Insipidus suspected in people who produce large amounts of urine. They first test the urine for sugar to rule out diabetes mellitus. Blood tests show abnormal levels of many electrolytes, including a high level of sodium. The best test is a water deprivation test, in which urine production, blood electrolyte (sodium) levels, and weight are measured regularly for a period of about 12 hours, during which the person is not allowed to drink. A doctor monitors the persons condition throughout the course of the test. At the end of the 12 hours, or sooner if the persons blood pressure falls or heart rate increases or if he loses more than 5% of his body weight, the doctor stops the test and injects Antidiuretic hormone. The diagnosis of central diabetes Insipidus is confirmed if, in response to Antidiuretic hormone, the persons excessive urination stops, the urine becomes mor e concentrated, the blood pressure rises, and the heart beats more normally. The diagnosis of nephrogenic diabetes Insipidus is made if, after the injection, the excessive urination continues, the urine remains dilute, and blood pressure and heart rate do not change. How do diuretics work? And what are the three main groups of diuretics? Diuretics work in the kidneys to increase the elimination of water and electrolytes, thereby causing more urine to form. Because the amount of fluid in the body is lowered, blood pressure goes down, too. Different chemical types work in different areas of the nephrons; so many different classes of diuretics are used. Three of the most common classes of diuretics are: Thiazide and Thiazide-Like Diuretics Drugs containing the chemical Thiazide and similar chemicals like indapamide and metolazone are suggested as the first drugs to try for most people with high blood pressure. They affect the distal convoluted tubule, where large amounts of sodium and water are absorbed back into the body. By blocking the re-absorption process, these drugs force more sodium and more water into the urine to be removed from the body. Thiazides may also relax the muscles in blood vessel walls, making blood flow more easily. Loop Diuretics More powerful than the Thiazide are classes of diuretics that work in the area of the Loop of Henle. These loop diuretics mainly interfere with the bodys re-absorption of chloride, but they also keep sodium from re-entering the blood. Unfortunately, loop diuretics are also more likely to promote the elimination of calcium, magnesium and especially potassium. Shortages of any of these essential electrolytes can cause serious problems such as irregular heartbeats. Potassium-Sparing Diuretics The third common group of diuretics consists of drugs that are much weaker than the Thiazides or the loop diuretics but potassium-sparing diuretics do not reduce potassium levels nearly as much as other kinds of diuretics do. They inhibit aldosterone and/or block sodium reabsorption and inhibit potassium excretion in the distal tubule.

Essay The Maya Civilization - 904 Words

The Maya Civilization The ancient Maya once occupied a vast geographic area in Central America. Their civilization inhabited an area that encompasses Mexicos Yucatan peninsula and parts of the states of Chiapas and Tabasco, as well as Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador. From the third to the ninth century, Maya civilization produced awe-inspiring temples and pyramids, highly accurate calendars, mathematics and hieroglyphics, and a complex social and political order (Collapse... 1). Urban centers were important to the Maya during the Classic period; they offered the Mayans a central place to practice religion. The Mayan culture can be traced back to 1500 BC, entering the Classic period about 300 AD and†¦show more content†¦The priestly class lived in the cities, while the general population lived away in small farming villages. The priests would carry out daily religious duties, particularly sacrifices, and the peasants would gather periodically for religious ceremonies and festival s. They built the ceremonial centers in a specific design for religious practices. They constructed tall pyramid temples, warren-like single story palaces, and a ball court that was surrounded by a broad central plaza. The architectural features of the Mayan pyramids include towering roofs, corbel vaults, and elaborate embellishment with stucco reliefs (Palfrey 2). It is amazing to imagine the detail that the Mayans were able to create in their architecture with only primitive tools. For the Mayans, science and religion were linked. Time was extremely important and their agriculture and religious ceremonies required a system that could record time. That need for structure is probably the reason that the Mayans developed such an amazingly accurate calendar. 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Compare and Contrast Sir Per Essay Example For Students

Compare and Contrast Sir Per Essay Many objects and people these days have the ability to be compared and contrasted. For example, you could compare and contrast a dog and a cat. A dog is most commonly a house pet, like the cat. But a dog has more of an ability to be trained, unlike the cat. But its not the subject of comparing a dog and a cat. Its time to begin comparing and contrasting Sir Percy and Chauvelin from The Scarlet Pimpernel, a book written by Baroness Orczy. Lets start with comparing Percy and Chauvelin. Something that they have in common is that they both are smart and creative. For example, Percy showed his creativity by outwitting Chauvelin at the Chat Gris. When Percy offered Chauvelin the snuff, but it really was pepper, that was definite creativity. Chauvelin shows his smarts when he holds Armand hostage and blackmails Margueritte. Really, how else can you think of that would make Margueritte do anything for Chauvelin?Another way that the two are alike is that they both are fighting for what they believe in. Percy is trying to free the aristocrats, while Chauvelin is attempting to prevent the aristocrats from leaving. Both are totally devoted to their job and are fighting for what they believe. Like how Percy could get killed at any time if he gets caught by Chauvelin. Speaking of Chauvelin, he himself is not a liked man ; there are many that wouldnt mind his little head on a stick, eh?The third way that Chauvelin and Sir Percy are alike is that they both use disguises in the book. Percy uses a disguise when he is trying to smuggle out aristocrats. His was of an old hag, and it allowed him to bypass the guards. He said that he was toting along his son who had the plague. Percy also had many accessories with his tricks. This time he used a rope of braids that Percy said were from the men whos heads got cut off. Yikes! Chauvelins disguise was of a clergyman, used while he was tracking down the Scarlet Pimpernel. This disguise allowed him to not be recognized immediately by Percy, but still he recognized Chauvelin eventually. Moving on to contrast, Percy and Chauvelin do not think alike. Yes, they are both very smart, but Chauvelin plays dirty while Percy sticks to the rules. For example, Chauvelin will kidnap people and blackmail them. He kidnapped Armand and made Margueritte lead him to the Pimpernel or else Chauvelin would kill Armand. Percy, on the other hand, plays fair and is very polite. Like the time when Percys life was in danger at the Chat Gris. When he was leaving, and minutes away from his death, did he dash out the door? No, he politely paid for his meal and left. Now thats nice !Another thing that the two characters do not have in common is how they direct their men. Chauvelin is more of a guy who will tell his men to do something, yet Chauvelin doesnt do anything but direct. He will say, Men, shoot at that hut when the tall man comes! But does he have a gun in hand? Nope. Percy, though, will tell his men to do something, and you can bet that he will be up there. Like when he rescues aristo crats, Percy is the one leading the cart passed the guards, risking his own life. The third thing that these two men dont have in common is their views on aristocrats. Sir Percy is fighting for his life to save these poor French souls, but Chauvelin is trying his best to kill them all. Chauvelins job is to find deliver the aristocrats that are sinning on their country to Madame La Guillotine. Totally opposite is Percys job of rescuing these doomed French from death during their revolution. .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e , .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e .postImageUrl , .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e , .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e:hover , .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e:visited , .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e:active { border:0!important; } .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e:active , .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u69b8ded067c4a5c6f0ecd329af63658e:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Conclusion For Edgar Allan Poe EssayIn conclusion, its easy to see that these two men have a lot in common. They are both smart and creative, they both fight for what they believe, and they both use disguises sometimes. On the other hand, these men dont really think alike, they are two different directors, and their views are different on aristocrats. All in all, these two men share many similarities, but their differences outweigh the similarities.